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Research Article: Shoulder strength, scapular displacement, and supraspinatus morphology in male and female competitive water polo players: a cross-sectional study

Date Published: 2026-10-14

Abstract:
Water polo is an Olympic team sport played by both men and women that combines repetitive throwing and aquatic propulsion, placing unique biomechanical demands on the shoulder. However, sex-related differences in shoulder function and structure remain poorly understood. This study compared the functional and structural shoulder profiles of male and female competitive water polo players. A cross-sectional study included 52 competitive water polo players (26 men and 26 women; 18–30 years). Internal and external rotator strength was assessed using a handheld dynamometer, and the internal-to-external rotation strength ratio (IR/ER ratio) was calculated. Scapular position and displacement were evaluated using a PALM® device, and supraspinatus tendon thickness was measured by ultrasound. Univariate analyses were followed by multiple linear regression adjusted for height and body mass. Men showed greater internal rotation strength ( p =?0.011) and a higher IR/ER ratio ( p =?0.004), whereas women exhibited greater scapular displacement ( p =?0.004). No significant sex differences were observed in external rotation strength ( p =?0.052), supraspinatus tendon thickness ( p =?0.384), or arm dominance ( p >?0.05). After adjustment, sex was no longer associated with internal rotation strength or the IR/ER ratio. However, greater scapular displacement in women remained independently associated with sex ( p =?0.005; adjusted p =?0.020). Sex differences in shoulder strength were largely explained by anthropometric characteristics. In contrast, greater scapular displacement in female players remained independent of body size, suggesting a sex-specific biomechanical adaptation that may be relevant for shoulder injury prevention. These findings contribute to a better understanding of sex-specific shoulder adaptations in water polo and may support the development of more individualized assessment and injury prevention strategies.

Introduction:
Water polo is an Olympic team sport played by both men and women that combines repetitive throwing and aquatic propulsion, placing unique biomechanical demands on the shoulder. However, sex-related differences in shoulder function and structure remain poorly understood. This study compared the functional and structural shoulder profiles of male and female competitive water polo players.

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